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Secret Of The Pyramids
60 Minutes (Australia) Presents: Secret Of The Pyramids Reporter: Tara Brown Archeologist: John Romer
Part 1
Part 2
Secrets from Ancient Egypt
Watch incredible things not seen on TV! My documentary is about a visit to the ancient sites with Emmy award winner and symbolist expert John West. I promise, you've never seen Egypt like this before; the sophistication and skill from the Ancients is beyond amazing
Papyrus Ebers
EBRES
The Ancient Egyptians wrote down their knowledge and this is found on what is known as the Papyrus Ebers: The document actually gives names to organs such as the spleen, the heart, the anus, the lungs etc so they must have known that these exist. One papyrus, the Edwin Smith Papyrus, has a detailed description of the brain in it so this organ was also well researched by the standards of the time. It is probable that this knowledge came as a result of the practice the Ancient Egyptians had of embalming dead bodies.
The Edwin Smith Papyrus is 5 meters long, and is chiefly concerned with surgery. It described 48 surgical cases of wounds of the head, neck, shoulders, breast and chest. Unfortunately, the scribe who copied it did not proceed further from the thorax, and it ended abruptly in the middle of a sentence. The papyrus listed the manifestations, followed by prescriptions to every individual case. It included a vast experience in fractures that can only be acquired at a site where accidents were extremely numerous, as during the building of the pyramids. The Ebers Papyrus is a huge roll of more than 20 meters long and 30 cm wide. It is chiefly an internal medicine reference, as well as diseases of the eye, skin, extremities, gynecology and some surgical diseases. Anatomical and physiological terminology are also included. For treatment of those diseases, 877 recipes and 400 drugs were described
Ibn Tulun Mosque
Manesterly Palace
Manesterly Palace ancient palace is an architectural masterpiece built on an area of 1000 meter on the island of Rawda, Cairo Is the remnant of a building construction has created Hassan Fouad Pasha Manesterly In (1851 / 1267 e), which is due to the home Manstr Macedonia The Egyptian government seized the palace in 1951 as the impact the historical and renovated and restored, and the palace now hosts major cultural festivals. And held by the concerts, and there is a museum by the singer Umm Kulthum Egypt also receives guests from around the world
Stanley Bridge , Alexandria
Characterized by the beauty of the bridge design is similar to designs where the royal palaces in the whole, is also distinguished by the lighting has contributed to raising the level of the region. It has been shown in the bridge information in many films addition to advertising communications company.
The BEE in ancient egypt
The BEE was a symbol of Lower Egypt. The royal titulary
“King of Upper and Lower Egypt” included the hieroglyph
for the bee. The SCARAB beetle in its form of Khephri,
was considered a theophany of the god Ré. The
image of a beetle pushing a ball of dung reminded the
Egyptians of the rising sun, thus the hieroglyph of a beetle
came to mean “to come into being.” The scarab beetle
REPTILES in ancient egypt
REPTILES
The turtle, Shetiu, was regarded indication of the
harmful deities and was described throughout Egyptian
history as the enemy of the god Ré. The crocodile was
sacred to the god SOBEK, worshiped in temples in the
FAIYUM and at KOM OMBO in Upper Egypt. The cobra,
WADJET, was considered an emblem of royalty and throne
power. The cobra was also the guardian of Lower Egypt,
with a special shrine at BUTO.
Snakes were symbols of new life and resurrection
because they shed their skins. One enormous snake, METHEN,
guarded the sacred boat of Ré each night, as the god journeyed
without end through the HEll. APOPHIS,
another charming snake, attacked Ré each night. Frogs
were symbols of reproductivity and resurrection and were members
of the OGDOAD at HELIOPOLIS. The scorpion was considered
a helper of the goddess Isis and was deified as
SELKET.
The turtle, Shetiu, was regarded indication of the
harmful deities and was described throughout Egyptian
history as the enemy of the god Ré. The crocodile was
sacred to the god SOBEK, worshiped in temples in the
FAIYUM and at KOM OMBO in Upper Egypt. The cobra,
WADJET, was considered an emblem of royalty and throne
power. The cobra was also the guardian of Lower Egypt,
with a special shrine at BUTO.
Snakes were symbols of new life and resurrection
because they shed their skins. One enormous snake, METHEN,
guarded the sacred boat of Ré each night, as the god journeyed
without end through the HEll. APOPHIS,
another charming snake, attacked Ré each night. Frogs
were symbols of reproductivity and resurrection and were members
of the OGDOAD at HELIOPOLIS. The scorpion was considered
a helper of the goddess Isis and was deified as
SELKET.
CoSMOGONY
cosmogony This was the base of creation traditions of
Egypt, legends that supposed political and religious significance
in each new age of the nation. The number and
variety of these myths provide insight into the development
of Egyptian spiritual values and clearly delineate
the development of certain divine cults.
To start with, the ancient people of the Nile did not
interest themselves with doctrinal or theological purity
and accuracy, but they did stick to a logical advancement
in issues of religious importance Spiritual consciousness
and acompatible unity, both in the person
and in the nation, were elements that kept Egyptians
protect and fix. Their religious ambition were cultic
in nature, dependent upon ritual and celebration, upon
renewed indication of ideals and values. Dogmas or
doctrines did not concern the usual individuals
specifically. In fact, the Egyptians were unpleasant
and reasonable development. It was enough for them to
see the god, to hear his or her concerns for the land, and
to mirror the cosmic harmony that their astronomical
abilities had gathered for them in the sky.
There were basic systems of creation theology in all
times of Egypt’s development. They were found at
HELIOPOLIS, HERMOPOLIS MAGNA, MEMPHIS, and THEBES.
Other local temples provided their own cosmogonic
information, but the four major ones provided the framework
for spiritual evolution in Egypt.
The basic tenets of these cosmological systems were
twofold: (1) the universe was once a primordial ocean
called NUN or Nu; (2) a primeval hill arose to bring life
out of confusion and darkness. The cosmogonic belief of the
city of Heliopolis are available in the PYRAMID TEXTS of
the Old Kingdom but are reduce and appear to make reference
to what was common knowledge of the time. In this
creation story the god ATUM appear from the watery
chaos called Nun. Atum made his first appearance on the
hill that became the great temple at Heliopolis. By 2300
B.C.E., the god Atum was recogonized with RÉ, becoming
Ré-Atum, symbolized by the BENBEN or a SCARAB. Ré-
Atum began making the other divine beings of Egypt
through masturbation. SHU, his son, was then spit out of
his mouth, and Ré-Atum vomited out TEFNUT.
Egypt, legends that supposed political and religious significance
in each new age of the nation. The number and
variety of these myths provide insight into the development
of Egyptian spiritual values and clearly delineate
the development of certain divine cults.
To start with, the ancient people of the Nile did not
interest themselves with doctrinal or theological purity
and accuracy, but they did stick to a logical advancement
in issues of religious importance Spiritual consciousness
and acompatible unity, both in the person
and in the nation, were elements that kept Egyptians
protect and fix. Their religious ambition were cultic
in nature, dependent upon ritual and celebration, upon
renewed indication of ideals and values. Dogmas or
doctrines did not concern the usual individuals
specifically. In fact, the Egyptians were unpleasant
and reasonable development. It was enough for them to
see the god, to hear his or her concerns for the land, and
to mirror the cosmic harmony that their astronomical
abilities had gathered for them in the sky.
There were basic systems of creation theology in all
times of Egypt’s development. They were found at
HELIOPOLIS, HERMOPOLIS MAGNA, MEMPHIS, and THEBES.
Other local temples provided their own cosmogonic
information, but the four major ones provided the framework
for spiritual evolution in Egypt.
The basic tenets of these cosmological systems were
twofold: (1) the universe was once a primordial ocean
called NUN or Nu; (2) a primeval hill arose to bring life
out of confusion and darkness. The cosmogonic belief of the
city of Heliopolis are available in the PYRAMID TEXTS of
the Old Kingdom but are reduce and appear to make reference
to what was common knowledge of the time. In this
creation story the god ATUM appear from the watery
chaos called Nun. Atum made his first appearance on the
hill that became the great temple at Heliopolis. By 2300
B.C.E., the god Atum was recogonized with RÉ, becoming
Ré-Atum, symbolized by the BENBEN or a SCARAB. Ré-
Atum began making the other divine beings of Egypt
through masturbation. SHU, his son, was then spit out of
his mouth, and Ré-Atum vomited out TEFNUT.
Soldering in ancient egypt
Soldering
The nozzles of libation vessels or pitcher, as well as the specially
formed feet, necks and handles of vessels, were made separately
and had to be clinging to the body of the vessel by riveting,
clamping or soldering. Examination of the tools shows that
Egyptian smiths applied hard soldering with mix metals , united
above 427 C (800 F). Our present knowledge show that the
technique of soldering was known in Egypt by the Fourth
Dynasty, though Sumerian metal workers practised hard soldering much
earlier. Thus there is proof of Sumerian effect on the
development of soldering in the Old Kingdom. From the Twelfth
Dynasty different combinations of gold, silver and copper were used
to produce solders of different colours and melting points.
Natron, a naturally occurring salt, may have been used as flux.
Lead-tin solders joined below 427 C (800 F) were known from the
Ptolemaic Period. The process of soldering was carried out incharcoal fireplaces or braziers. The workpieces to be soldered were held together by tongs
The nozzles of libation vessels or pitcher, as well as the specially
formed feet, necks and handles of vessels, were made separately
and had to be clinging to the body of the vessel by riveting,
clamping or soldering. Examination of the tools shows that
Egyptian smiths applied hard soldering with mix metals , united
above 427 C (800 F). Our present knowledge show that the
technique of soldering was known in Egypt by the Fourth
Dynasty, though Sumerian metal workers practised hard soldering much
earlier. Thus there is proof of Sumerian effect on the
development of soldering in the Old Kingdom. From the Twelfth
Dynasty different combinations of gold, silver and copper were used
to produce solders of different colours and melting points.
Natron, a naturally occurring salt, may have been used as flux.
Lead-tin solders joined below 427 C (800 F) were known from the
Ptolemaic Period. The process of soldering was carried out incharcoal fireplaces or braziers. The workpieces to be soldered were held together by tongs
Gold In ANCiEnt EGypt
Gold
local gold was processed into small items of jewellery as early
as the Predynastic age. through the Old Kingdom Egyptian
miners, helped by the local nomadic population, began
mining for gold in the eastern desert. Ancient Egyptian records
give details of the principal mines. The 'Gold of the Desert
from Koptos' was mined at many places near Wadi el Hammat,
Wadi Abbed, Wadi el-Fawakhir and Wadi Sid. An ancient
Egyptian sketch map of this area exists, showing the gold-mining
district. The hieratic captions describe the place of a gold
mine, with paths leading to the Red Sea, the miners' quarters, the
gold-bearing mountain areas and gold-washing stations .
This sketch map, drawn on a papyrus, dates from the New
Kingdom and is considered as the first map in history.
From the beginning of the Middle Kingdom the gold deposits
of northern Nubia were invest. Egyptian records tell of the
'Gold of Wawat', which was mined near Wadi Allaqi, Wadi elHudi
and between Buhen and Semna. The Egyptian effect on
Nubia developed quickly during the New Kingdom and another
gold-mining district was opened up south of the gold mines of
Wawat. Egyptian records Indicated to the 'Gold of Kush' which was
mined in the area of Napata and Abu Hamed. In Egypt, the refine
metal was extracted both from alluvial gold found in surface
deposits and from sub-surface quartz gold.
Coffin Texts
Coffin Texts These were inscriptions placed inside the
coffins of Egyptians, containing spells and incantations
intended to help the deceased on their journeys to the
hereafter. Developed in HERAKLEOPOLIS MAGNA in the
First Intermediate Period (2134–2040 B.C.E.), these texts
public banking institutions in all of the major cities, with
smaller agencies serving the rural areas as well. The central
bank was in ALEXANDRIA, but agencies in other areas
collected government revenues and handled loans to
farmers and businessmen. Thousands of Egyptians were
reportedly employed by these banks in order to keep
them functioning in diverse regions.
BUTO
Buto (Tell el-Fara’un) A site south of TANIS in the
Delta, the capital of Lower Egypt in Predynastic times
called Pe, or Per-Wadjet, the House of WADJET, predynastic
tombs and some dating to the First Dynasty
(2900–2770 B.C.E.) were discovered in Buto, which
remained popular as the seat of power for the legendary
kings of Egypt’s Prehistoric Period (before 3000 B.C.E.).
In all main, festivals these rulers were portrayed as
the SOULS OF PE in Lower Egypt, and as the SOULS
OF NEKHEN (HIERAKONPOLIS) of Upper Egypt. These
legendary kings greeted each new claimant to the
throne during the coronation rituals and were called
upon to serve as the guardians of the land in each new
generation.
Buto was divided into Pe and Dep. Three mounds
remain on the site, two from the town and one a ruined
temple. RAMESSES II (r. 1290–1224 B.C.E.) donated various
objects as offerings, and SHOSHENQ V (r. 773–735 B.C.E.)
erected a stela there. The ruined mounds provide the
modern name of Buto, Tell el-Fara’un, “the Mound of the pharaohs.
Delta, the capital of Lower Egypt in Predynastic times
called Pe, or Per-Wadjet, the House of WADJET, predynastic
tombs and some dating to the First Dynasty
(2900–2770 B.C.E.) were discovered in Buto, which
remained popular as the seat of power for the legendary
kings of Egypt’s Prehistoric Period (before 3000 B.C.E.).
In all main, festivals these rulers were portrayed as
the SOULS OF PE in Lower Egypt, and as the SOULS
OF NEKHEN (HIERAKONPOLIS) of Upper Egypt. These
legendary kings greeted each new claimant to the
throne during the coronation rituals and were called
upon to serve as the guardians of the land in each new
generation.
Buto was divided into Pe and Dep. Three mounds
remain on the site, two from the town and one a ruined
temple. RAMESSES II (r. 1290–1224 B.C.E.) donated various
objects as offerings, and SHOSHENQ V (r. 773–735 B.C.E.)
erected a stela there. The ruined mounds provide the
Aswan
the territories below the cataract, as viceroys of NUBIA (modern Sudan) used the ELEPHANTINE Island at Aswan as a residence in some reigns. The area is famous for red
granite, called syrenite. Settlements at Aswan date to predynastic times,
before the unification c. 3000 B.C.E. The tombs at Aswan include Sixth Dynasty (2323–2150 B.C.E.) sites. Of particular note are the tombs of Mekhu and SABNI. Mekhu died
south of Aswan, and his son, Sabni, recovered the body and brought it to Egypt for burial. PEPI II (r. 2246–2152 B.C.E.) gave mortuary gifts for the tomb, which contains rock pillared chambers and frescoes. HARKHUF, the faithful servant of Pepi II, is also buried there. The Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 B.C.E.) tombs of local nomarchs are also in the Aswan necropolis, most designated with long passages and ornamented with frescoes and reliefs.
The temple of KHNUM at Aswan and SATET’s temple demonstrate the ongoing concern of Egypt’s rulers for the city. The goddess Satet’s temple was erected by HATSHEPSUT
(r. 1473–1458 B.C.E.), who had reliefs and a granite niche installed. The temple of Khnum has additions made by RAMESSES II (r. 1290–1224 B.C.E.) and NECTANEBO
II (r. 360–343 B.C.E.). PHILAE’s temple, which was moved to the island of Agilkia to save it from the inundation caused by the High Aswan Dam, was supervised
from the city. In cultic terms, Aswan was the abode of the deities Khnum, Satet, and ANUKIS. The Nile god, HAPI (1), resided in a cave in the region, and one site was reserved,.as the grave of osiris.
.
Landmarks In Egypt (1) Cairo DownTown
There Are Many Landmarks in Egypt i will put it sequential
Cairo DownTown:
the downtown area of Cairo, covering the districts: Cairo Downtown - Almosqui - Caliph - Mukattam - Zainab. One of the oldest districts of Cairo was built by Khedive Ismail at the opening of the Suez Canal to be the interface of a honorable and Egypt have been planned and designed with the latest European styles of architecture and lighting were introduced in the streets before it enters the streets of Paris
Crocodilopolis
Crocodilopolis An ancient Egyptian site, originally
called Shedet, then Arsinoe, and now Medinet el-Faiyum.
A tradition states that AHA (Menes; 2920 B.C.E.) founded
Crocodilopolis. The city served as the capital of the
FAIYUM and was the cultic center for the crocodile deity
SOBEK. An agricultural center watered by the BAHR YUSEF
(the Joseph River, honoring a local hero of Islam), the
city also had a shrine honoring the goddess RENENET. A
temple discovered on this site dates to the reign of AMENEMHET
III (1844–1797 B.C.E.), but it was probably finished
by him, having been started by SENWOSRET I (r.
1971–1926 B.C.E.). There is some speculation that the red
granite OBELISK at ABGIG was once part of this temple.
RAMESSES II (r. 1290–1224 B.C.E.) restored the temple of
Sobek. During the Ptolemaic Period (304–30 B.C.E.), the
city was named for Queen ARSINOE and served as an
important cultic center for Sobek. Visitors to the city fed
crocodiles nurtured there. There were various mines in
the area of Crocodilopolis, exploited throughout Egypt’s
history. The site also had a sacred lake and baths
Bastet
Bastet A goddess of ancient Egypt, whose THEOPHANY
was the cat, Bastet’s cult center was at BUBASTIS. She was
the protector of pregnant women and was a pleasure loving
goddess who served as the patroness of music and
dance. Bastet was also believed to protect men from diseases
and demons. The goddess was considered the personification
of the warming rays of the sun on the Nile.
She was normally depicted as a woman with a cat’s head,
holding a SISTRUM and the symbol of life, the ANKH.
The goddess remained popular throughout Egypt
even to Roman times. Her festivals at Bubastis were
among the most well-attended celebrations in Egypt. People
set out in festooned barges, and music accompanied
all who made the pilgrimage to her shrine. The festival
was a time of pranks as well as another designated period,
of intoxication. A gigantic parade culminated the celebration,
and on that day few Egyptians were sober. Shrines
of the gods were erected in Rome, Ostia, Nemi, and Pompeii
Abu Ghurob
Abu Ghurob A site north of ABUSIR and south of GIZA,
containing two sun temples dating to the Fifth Dynasty
(2465–2323 B.C.E.). The better preserved temple is the
northern one, erected by NIUSERRÉ Izi (r. 2416–2392
B.C.E.), and dedicated to RÉ, the solar deity of HELIOPOLIS.
An OBELISK was once part of the site, and inscriptions of
the royal HEB-SED ceremonies honoring the ruler’s threedecade
reign were removed from the site in the past. The
temple has a causeway, vestibule, and a large courtyard
for sacrifices. A chapel and a “Chamber of the Seasons”
are also part of the complex, and the remains of a SOLAR
BOAT, made of brick, were also found. The complex was
once called “the Pyramid of Righa.” The sun temple of
USERKHAF (r. 2465–2458 B.C.E.) is also in Abu Ghurob.
but is in ruins.
Abbott Papyrus
ABBOTT Papyrus A historical document used as a
record of the Twentieth Dynasty (1196–1070 B.C.E.) in
conjunction with the AMHERST PAPYRUS and accounts of
court proceedings of the era. Serious breaches of the religious
and civil codes were taking place at this time, as
royal tombs were being plundered and mummies mutilated
or destroyed. Such acts were viewed as sacrilege
rather than mere criminal adventures. Grave robbers were
thus condemned on religious as well as state levels. The
Abbott Papyrus documents the series of interrogations
and trials held in an effort to stem these criminal activities.
In the British Museum, London, the Abbott Papyrus
now offers detailed accounts of the trials and the uncovered
network of thieves.
WENI
WENI (fl. 2325–2275 BC). Royal official during the reigns of Teti, Pepy I, and Nemtyemsaf I of Dynasty 6, who rose to the position of governor of Upper Egypt. He is known from his autobiographical. inscription found at Abydos now housed in the Cairo Egyptian Museum. During his career, he managed quarrying expeditions to Tura and Hatnub, commanded a military expedition against Asiatic raiders, and was part of a royal inquiry into the conduct of a queen of Pepy.
ISIS.
ISIS. Greek name of the major female deity of Egypt, Egyptian Ast.
Daughter of Geb and Nut and consort of her brother, Osiris, mythological
ruler of Egypt. Following the murder of her husband by their
brother Seth, she assiduously collected the remains of Osiris and, according
to one version, was impregnated by him after death, if not before.
She fought tirelessly for the rights of her son, Horus, to succeed
to Egypt in opposition to Seth. This contest is reflected in the bawdy
tale The Contendings of Horus and Seth. The worship of Isis became
particularly strong during the Graeco-Roman Period, when Osiris
was displaced as her husband by the composite god Sarapis. Her cult
spread throughout the Roman Empire, being particularly attractive to
women. It was suppressed at the advent of Christianity.
Beit el-Wali Rock-cut temple
Beit el-Wali Rock-cut temple on the west bank of the Nile in Lower Nubia, which was dedicated to Amun-Ra and founded in the reign OfRAMESES II (1279-1213 BC). The reliefs were copied by the German Egyptologist Giinrher Roeder in 1907, although casts were made by Robert Hay in the 1820s. The site was not comprehensively studied until the work of a joint expedition of the University of Chicago and the Swiss Institute in Cairo during the 19605. Soon afterwards, the temples at Beit el-Wali and nearby KALABSHA were moved to New Kalabsha, 45 km to the north, in order to save them from the rising waters of Lake tasser (see AS\VAN HIGH DAM). The reliefs include depictions of the siege of a Syrian city, the capture or a Nubian village and the bringing of Nubian tribute into the presence of the king, painted plaster casts of which are displayed in the collection of the British Museum
ATUM
ATUM
Creator-god and solar deity of HELIOPOLlS, where he was gradually syncretized with the sun-god RA, to form lhe god Ra-Atum. According to the Heliopolitan theology, Atum caine into being before heaven and earth were separated, rising up from NUN, the waters of chaos, to form the PRIMEVAL MOUND. His name means 'the all', signifying his CREATION and summation of all that exists.
Atum's creation of the universe was conceptualized in terms ofa family of nine gods known as the Heliopolitan ENNEAD. Thus the two offspring of Atum, SHU (air) and TEFNUT (moisture), became the parents of GEB (earth) and NUT (sky), and the grandparents of OSIRIS, 1515, SETH and NEPI-ITHYS. Atum was said to have produced Shu and Tefnut by copulating with his hand or, according to other sources, spitting them into being. There has been some debate as to whether Arum's act of procreation constituted masturbation or copulation, in that his hand seems to have represented the female principle. Both Atum and his hand were therefore portrayed as a divine couple on coffins of the First Intermediate Period. Similarly, the title 'god's hand' was adopted by Theban priestesses supposedly married to the god AMUN.
Arum was regarded as a protective deilY, particularly associated with the rituals of kingship. It was Atum who lifted the dead king from his pyramid to the heavens in order to transform him into a star-god, and in later times he protected the deceased during the journey through the underworld.
He is usually depicted as an anthropomorphic deity often wearing the double crown. The animals particularly sacred to him were the lion, the bull, the ICHNEUMON and the lizard. while he was also believed to be manifested in the SCARAB, which emerged from its ball of dung just as ATUM appeared from the primeval mound. Sometimes he was portrayed in the essentially primordial form of a snake.
AKH
AKH
One of the five principal elements which the Egyplians considered necessary to make up a complete personality, the other [OUf being the KA, OA, NAME and SHADOW. The akh was believed to be the form in which the blessed dead inhabited the underworld, and also the result of the successful reunion of the ba with its ka. Once the akh had been created by this reunion, it was regarded as enduring and unchanging for eternity. Although the physical form of the aRIz was usually portrayed as a sHABTI-like mummiform figure, the word akh was written with the sign of the so-called cresled IBIS .
Ahmose nefertary
Ahmose nefertary. (c.1 570-1 505 BC) Perhaps the most influential of the New Kingdom royal women, whose political and religious titles, like those of her grandmother TETISHERI and mother AI-IHOTEP I, have helped to illuminate the various new political roles adopted by women in the early 18th Dynasty (see QUEENS). Born in the early sixteenth century BC, she was described as mwl nesw Cking's mother') in relation to her son AMENHOTEP T and hemel nesw werel Cking's principal wife') in relation to her brother and husband AI-IMOSE 1. She was also the first royal woman to have the title hemet netjer (see GOD'S WIFE OF AMUN) bestowed upon her, an act which was described in Ahmose I'S Stele of Donations in.
the temple of Amun at Karnak. This title was the one most frequently used by Ahmosc Nefertari, and it was later passed on to sc\-eral of her female descendants. including her own daughter Meritamun and Queen IIATSIIEPSLT (1473-1458 BC), It was once interpreted as an 'heiress' epithet, marking out the woman whom the king must marry to legitimize his claim to the throne, but it is now considered to have been simply a priestly office relating to the cult of Amun (carrying with it entitlemcnt to an agricultural estate and personnel), which was to acquire greater political importance during the Late Period.
There is considerable textual evidence for Ahmose Nefertari's involvement in the cult of Amun as well as her participation in the quarrying and building projects undertaken by her husband. One stele even documents the fact that Ahmose 1 sought her approval before erecting a cenotaph for TETISHERJ at Abydos. She seems to have outlived him by a considerable period, apparently serving as regent during the early years of Amenhotep I'S reign. An inscription of the first year of the reign of his successor, THUTMOSE I, suggests that she was probably still alive even after the death of her son. She became the object of a posthumous religious cult, sometimes linked with that of Amenhotep I, particularly in connection with the workmen's village at OEIR EL-MEDINA, which they were considered to have jointly rounded. More than fifty of the Theban tombs of private individuals include inscriptions mentioning her name.
agriculture
agriculture The fundamental importance of agriculture in Egypr is attested from early times) with the development of land surveying as a means of re-determining land boundaries after the annual INUI\OATION had deposited its load of silt on the fields, and also the measuring of areas of land for TAXATION purposes. Scenes of government surveyors measuring agricultural land are known from the decoration of many tomb chapels such as that of menna,an
18th-Dynasty Theban official (TT69).
The development of the CALENOAR itself was linked to careful observation of the agriculwral year, the seasons being named in accordance with stages of the annual Nile cycle. Flooding began in mid-June, the time of the New Year, and maximum depth was usually reached by mid-August, although the exact timing varied from north to south. The reach of the ile was extended by the digging of irrigation canals which could also be used for moving water at times of low Oood. Canals are first attested in the Early Dynastic period and it is likely that the reliefs on the macehead of King SCORPION show the use of irrigation in the late PREDYNASTIC PERIOD. As soon as the inundation began to subside the farmers blocked canals in order to retain the water, which was not released for a further month and a half. In October or November the seed was broadcast by hand and then trampled in by sheep and goats (as well as pigs, according to Herodotus).
The principal crop was grain, including barley (Hordeum; particularly the six-rowed variety) and three types of wheat: emmer (Triticum dicocC/lm), einkorn (Triticum m01l0coccum) and spelt (Triticum spelta). These were used to make bread and beer, the two great staples of Egyptian life. The rich soil could support ar least two crops a year, but if a second was desired, during the summer.
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